"PRODUCT DESIGN IS NOT AN ART" Tomás Maldonado's contribution to the emergence of a new professional profile
eines neuen
Berufsprofils Author: Dagmar Rinker Publication: hochschule für gestaltung ulm
Year: 2006
pp: 5-9
"Product design is not art"[1]The teaching program of the HfG Ulm decisively influenced the formulation of the hitherto barely profiled professional identity of the "industrial designer". Tomás Maldonado, in his lecture given in 1958 at the World Exhibition in Brussels entitled "New developments in industry and in the training of product designers" defined, not only the components of proper training in design, but also the tasks and role of the new type of "product designer". In the early years of HfG Ulm it was avoided to use the term "designer" in the German text of the official publications of HfG Ulm. Analogous to the name of the institution, "Hochschule für Gestaltung", the concept of "Gestalter " was chosen, which was however translated as "designer" in English texts printed in parallel. " Gestaltung" has its origin in the theory of Gestalt, which had its beginnings already in the nineteenth century. refers to an active dimension in the sense of a work process; the word "design", on the other hand, is a nostanti that refers to a drawing or a plan and the term "industrial design" can be retrostracted to a definition of Mart Stam of the year 1948.[4] For our purposes it is important to note that, only until the mid-eighteenth century, design and execution were unified in the person of the craftsman.[5] The division of labor and the emergence of conditions of production in an industrial society made it necessary to separate activity from design and put it in the hands of specialists. Until about the mid-twentieth century, these specialists came from the professional groups of architects, engineers and artists. There were still no design schools and until the Bauhaus took the decisive turn in the field of industrial product design, training was subordinate to the primacy of Architecture. When HfG Ulm was founded in 1953, its initiators looked first to the Bauhaus in Dessau. The founding rector Max Bill studied there, when the first teachers invited to Ulm Josef Albers, Walter Peterhans and Helene Nonné-Schmidt, were teaching in Dessau. New developments in the industry and in the training of product designers After the departure of Max Bill[6], the HfG Ulm was led by a collegiate rectorate that included Otl Aicher, Hans Gugelot and Tomás Maldonado. In addition to this change in organization, the academic year 1957/58 also brought with it a restructuring of the pedagogical concept. This new position was presented by Tomás Maldonado at the above-mentioned conference, at the World Exhibition in Brussels in 1958.[7] The published version of this text can be read as an official statement of the new HfG Ulm program. Maldonado began his lecture by stating that 25 years after the closure of the Bauhaus, his categories could no longer be applied in another school. Despite its critical review, it did not intend to minimize the achievements of this institution. He saw it as necessary for the development of the HfG Ulm, to distance, in the first place, from the expressionist phase of the foundation of the Bauhaus, which had its roots in the "Arts and Crafts" movement. This implied the rejection of the priority of the aesthetic factor in the design work. As Maldonado says, while the Bauhaus had introduced a new and revolutionary category with its "rationalist aesthetics of industrial production",[8] the latter was later seen as "a problem of form, which should be solved artistically".[9] "Styling" vs. "good form"?The problem of the dominant character of aesthetic factors in design work came to the fore especially with the discussion of Raymond Loewy and the American concept of "styling". Reyner Banham was one of the first to analyze this phenomenon.[11] Maldonado agreed with him on four points – for example, when he said that "in the evaluation of mass consumption goods the use of neo-academic aesthetics is not justified" and that "aesthetics should not depend on an idea of abstract and eternal quality".[12] |
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Banham proposed to consider "styling" as a type of "folk art", a thesis that was rejected by Maldonado for several reasons. Maldonado, on the other hand, was of the opinion that both groups were responsible for the sorry state of design, especially since both, despite their differences, adhered to the reactionary concept of "product design as art". He believed that the time had come to expand this concept of old-fashioned design by introducing new categories: "The aesthetic factor is merely one factor among many others with which the designer can operate, but it is neither the main nor the predominant. Next to it is also the productive factor, the constructive, the economic and perhaps also the symbolic factor. Industrial design is not an art and the designer is not necessarily an artist."[13] According to Maldonado, this phase should be abandoned once and for all, since aesthetic considerations "have ceased to be a solid conceptual basis of industrial design."[14] Economic aspectsAccording to Maldonado, the study of the dependence of product design on economic factors had been totally set aside. The only exception was the work of Swedish-born art historian Gregor Paulsson.[15] From the point of view of a national economic theory of value, Paulsson had analyzed product design with respect to the relations between consumer and producer. To put it more simply, the consumer is interested in the use value of the product and the producer is interested in its exchange value. The aesthetic value is of interest to the producers to the extent that the sale value increases. Styling makes use of this mechanism; that is why Paulsson suggested the incorporation of aesthetic value into the use value. Maldonado criticized this proposal as too simple and too superficial. The reciprocal relationships between exchange value and use value, he said, are much more complex, as was already observed by classical authors such as Karl Marx and Adam Smith, as well as by national economists such as John Maynard Keynes. Since the relationship between the producer and the consumer changes with each new economic phase, the position of the product always varies. That is why the role of the product designer also changes with each new era. The first major boom in the automotive industry was marked by engineers and inventors such as Henry Ford, who were followed by product designers who saw themselves as artists. In the third phase and according to Maldonado current phase, the designer "will be a coordinator. Your responsibility will be to coordinate, in close collaboration with a large number of specialists, the most varied requirements of the manufacture and use of products; the ultimate responsibility for achieving maximum productivity in manufacturing and maximum material and cultural satisfaction of the consumer will be yours."[16] The growing and unexpected demand in the field of industrial design resulted in the definition of the professional profile as that of a "coordinator". In the same year, Sigfried Giedion, one of the protagonists of the New Construction, wrote in relation to the future role of the architect: "Today the emphasis must be placed on the future role of the architect as coordinator, so that he will be prepared to integrate into a work of art the elements provided by specialized knowledge."[17] New areas of knowledge for the product designerWith the widely extended definition of the product designer as a coordinator, training became necessary not only in the areas of planning and design, but also scientific knowledge in the fields of Economics, Psychology and Production Technology. In this way the product designer had to become familiar with theories about demand and consumption. In connection with this, Maldonado referred to the writings of Anatol Rapoport and Henri Lefèbvre, who dealt exhaustively with the role of the consumer. This became more necessary to the extent that the "machine designed for the resulting product would be replaced by the machine designed to carry out fundamental operations."[18] That is why products had to be designed in a totally different way by virtue of automatic manufacturing. This process was described by John Diebold with the concept of "re-design". Well ahead of his time, Maldonado recognized the phenomenon "of miniaturization and automation as a result of the microelectronic revolution."[19] ... and the revolutionary consequences for design trainingMaldonado was one of the first to clearly recognize that the very rapid technical and economic developments posed new demands in the teaching of industrial design. The educational style of the Bauhaus became obsolete from this point of view, since it had been formulated on artistic and not scientific premises. A crisis was coming both in the training of designers and in the higher education system in general. This dilemma was introduced to public debate by the media, following the launch of the Soviet artificial satellite Sputnik in October 1957.[20] In an article in the journal "Merkur", Maldonado analyzed the current systems of education and their historical bases: the European "Neohumanism" in the tradition of Alexander von Humboldt; the American "Progressivism", which developed from the premises of John Dewey's "learning by doing", Marxist-Leninist pedagogy with an extreme polytechnic orientation. For him, however, none of these orientations offered a way out. Instead, he saw a solution in the introduction of "operational scientific thinking,[21] which consequently entailed an objectivist-experimental methodology. In this context, Maldonado referred to the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the protagonists of the so-called Pragmatism, formulated already in 1882 as follows: "this is the era of methods and a university that must be the exponent of conditions |
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of the life of the human spirit, it must be a university of methods."[22] Maldonado saw the opportunities for a new philosophy of education from the foundations of a "scientific operationalism." As a result of its radical shift to the school curriculum, HfG Ulm fundamentally reformed the education of product designers. Accuracy of the school programIn 1958 HfG Ulm undertook a precision of its academic program and with it a consolidated introduction of the theoretical disciplines.[23] Younger teachers, such as Aicher, Gugelot and Maldonado distanced themselves with this step clearly from the Bauhaus tradition. The new conception of the basic course[24] gave way to the so-called "ulm model", which has influenced design training worldwide until today. Both with the new catalog of subjects, and with his choice of visiting professors, Maldonado made it possible for Ulm students to come into contact with the scientific and theoretical discourse of the time. The firm integration of the discipline of Semiotics into the curriculum was an innovation for Europe that is due to its initiative. László Moholy-Nagy invited scientists from the University of Chicago to teach at the New Bauhaus in the 40s. In the context of the program "Intellectual Integration", the philosopher of language Charles W. Morris, with whose works Maldonado has been intensely engaged, taught for example the discipline of Semiotics. Also part of this program were courses in Cybernetics or Mathematics. The teachers belonged to the "Science Unity" movement, an extension of the so-called "Vienna Circle".[25] This circle of neopositivist philosophical current had specialized in the U.S. especially in scientific logic and fundamental research. The principle of cultural integration was already established in the first programs of the HfG Ulm; the focus on scientific subjects was new and ultimately had two reasons. On the one hand, it arose from the contemporary need to be aware of scientific and technological innovations. On the other hand, however, it was also an attempt to raise the status of design training. HfG Ulm explicitly distanced itself from the programmes of arts and crafts schools which, while considered inferior to high-level art academies, enjoyed some acceptance by virtue of their traditional curriculum. Ulm was completely opposed to this tradition: "the citizens of Ulm looked suspiciously at the Kuhberg – at least the Folkwangschule in Essen or the Werkakademie in Kassel offered ceramics and live drawing."[26] Although many schools undoubtedly offered good instruction in subjects such as textiles, metalworking, ceramics, binding, and typography, the transition from applied artistic design to industrial design took place only gradually. One of the few schools that offered industrial design relatively soon was the Folkwangschule in Essen.[27], as shown by the results of a presentation at the 1967 World's Exhibition.[28] About the founding of the Verband Deutscher Industrie Designer-VDID (Association of German Designers)Simultaneously with HfG Ulm's efforts to establish a professional identity of the industrial designer,[29] a group of young designers from Baden-Württemberg expressed the desire to found a professional association.[30] The look towards Ulm had reinforced this intention. The statutes of the new association to be founded required the definition of the work area. The other two comparable organizations, both the "Deutsche Werkbund" and the "Rat für Formgebung", were at that time dominated by the proponents of "good form", that is, by the older generation of designers (the "artists of the industry"). They adopted a critical attitude towards structural changes in production technology and were reluctant to collaborate with the new patterns of education. The VDID was founded in Stuttgart on August 5, 1959 and on September 21, 1959 was accepted as a member of the international organization ICSID (International Council of Societies of Industrial Design). In December 1959, the first definition of the features of a professional identity was agreed at a congress. The participants were oriented there towards the Anglo-Saxon practice of design, guided by the experiences of Arno Votteler, who had worked in the offices, both in the German and in the English, of Robert Gutmann. Tomás Maldonado was invited as an external advisor and as one of the representatives of the HfG Ulm. The discussion process cannot be exposed within the framework of this text, however, there is no doubt that the direct and indirect influence of Maldonado's activity in Ulm led to the definition of the area of work corresponding to an "industrial designer".[31] The final version of the 1960 text reads: "Industrial design is the creation of industrial products. The industrial designer must have the knowledge, skills and experience to grasp the determinants of the products, elaborate the design concept and lead all this to the final article in cooperation with those involved in the planning, development and manufacture of the object. The basis of this coordinating activity is their scientific and technical knowledge. The objective of its activity is industrial products that serve society in a cultural and social sense." [32] Bridges with ItalyIn Italy the first generation of designers had been trained as architects. Due to cultural and historical factors, the boundaries between Art, Architecture and Design were and are flexible. The architect's training was based on a philosophical and interdisciplinary point of view rather than on specific exercises. Many designs for people of the upper class frequently bore the individual and brilliant imprint of their creator. In particular, in the mid-60s, complaints that there was no industrial design school or, rather, that all attempts to create one had failed, were gaining strength. In this sense, Giulio Carlo Argan remarked "that industrial design fell into a critical state", because "industrial design ceased to be a type of microarchitecture, what it had been for many years."[33] These aspects of mass industrial culture – crisis in education and confusing definition of positions – were among the issues discussed at the XIII Triennale of 1964. Vittorio Gregotti saw Maldonado's move to Milan in 1967 as a turning point: he "became a key and a figure of design culture in Italy." |
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Maldonado's practical activity as design director of the warehouses of the "La Rinascente" group lasted barely three years: it was, however, enough to demonstrate that it is possible to apply the global design methodology to an entire complex."[34] The works of the HfG Ulm were published in Italy, first of all, in the magazine "Stile Industria" and were received with great interest. Hans von Klier, a graduate of HfG Ulm, worked in the office of Ettore Sottsass Jr. Not only did he design numerous furniture and appliances for Olivetti, but at the beginning of 1969 he was responsible in this company for the sections of industrial design, cultural relations and advertising. His corporate image for Olivetti wrote design history. Pio Manzú, who obtained his diploma in 1964 at HfG Ulm, became famous for the body designs he developed for fiat and Autobianchi. About the professional identity of the graphic designerHerbert Bayer, who directed from 1925 to 1928 the typography and advertising workshop at the Bauhaus, created the conditions for a new profession: graphic designer. He put the subject of "Advertising" into the teaching program including, among other things, the Analysis of Advertising Media and the Psychology of Advertising. Since its foundation, HfG Ulm has distanced itself from a possible affiliation with advertising. At first, the department in question was called Visual Design, but since it quickly became clear that its current goal was to solve design problems in the area of mass communication, in the academic year 1956/57 the name was changed to the Department of Visual Communication, modeled after the Department of Visual Communication of the New Bauhaus in Chicago.[35] In the curriculum were the development and application of visual reports, news systems and their transmission. The field of planning and analysis of modern means of communication was treated, with clear distinction of illustrative graphic arts. The Department of Visual Communication worked closely with the Department of Information. There publicists were trained to work in the mass media, press, radio, television and film. Gui Bonsiepe clearly showed that, to a large extent, visual communication should be understood as advertising subject to economic laws.[36] The persuasive component of advertising was then extremely marked. HfG Ulm, however, decided to work primarily in the area of non-persuasive communication, in fields such as traffic sign systems, drawings for technical devices, or the visual translation of scientific content. Up to that point, these areas had not been systematically taught in any European school. At the beginning of the 70s, members of the "Bund Deutscher Grafik-Designer" (Association of German Graphic Designers), made known several features of their professional identity, as in the case of Anton Stankowski among others. While in 1962 the official definition of the profession was oriented almost exclusively to advertising activities, it now extended to include areas located under the rubric of visual communication.[37] The introduction of this discipline as a study in the HfG Ulm was certainly one of the factors behind the new definition. Josef Müller-Brockmann summed it up like this: "The teaching and practical results of HfG Ulm became new guidelines."[38] The corporate images produced by the HfG Ulm's Development Group 5, such as those created for braun or Lufthansa, were also decisive for this new professional identity. However, within the HfG Ulm there were also voices against the exclusion of advertising from the curriculum, for example, that of Herbert W. Kapitzki (professor between 1964 and 1968 of the Department of Visual Communication). For this reason, Kapitzki invited speakers such as Bodo Reiger to Ulm, who offered a course on an advertising campaign to introduce a food to the market.[39] Paradigm shiftThe structural transformation of industrial mass production required a redefinition of the professional identity of the industrial designer. What would have happened if HfG Ulm had not taken this radical step? Where would modern education in design be if Ulm's teachers and students had not ventured into this "experiment" of self-questioning? The late 50s were marked by scientific euphoria; such a climate simultaneously required and made possible the formulation of a theory of design characterized by rationality. Until this time, there had been no systematization of the design. In order to achieve one, methodologies based on the principles of mathematics were applied to the design process. This analogy was considered as the only way to formulate initial criteria for a design methodology.[42] There is no doubt that this procedure has its limits; this is the reason why Maldonado and Bonsiepe in 1964 put to the test the Methodology in which they had worked until that moment.[43] They warned not to develop it by itself, but to accentuate the necessary relationship it should have with the design. From his current perspective, Maldonado goes even further and differentiates: "in Ulm we believed that there was "design", a kind of Absolutism of product design. That was not correct. There are different types of product design, which correspond to various levels or types of production."[44] Following Antonio Gramsci, he sees the future of design in a "Philosophy of Praxis".[45] Many of the criteria developed at Ulm are still valid, especially in the area of technological design. Others proved impractical and were outplayed. But that oft-quoted slogan was also far surpassed: "design is an art that becomes useful."[46] |
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GlossaryGestalt Theory:A school of psychological research founded by Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), according to which perception occurs by the apprehension of a Gestalt (form or configuration). A Gestalt is a whole that possesses qualities that go beyond its individual elements – for example, a melody as opposed to the individual notes. From this research the so-called Gestalt laws were formulated. Operations research:the study of planning and forecasting. It was first used as a term for methods developed during World War II in England and the UNITED States for the mathematical analysis of quantitative values in military operations. Later it was applied in scientific and economic contexts. The standard work in the field, Operational Philosophy, was published in 1953 by Anatol Rapoport. John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) is one of the most important economists of the twentieth century. His masterpiece, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936, influenced many Decisions of the British government. His work is also significant from the cultural historical point of view. Neopositivism:philosophical current of the "Vienna Circle", whose members fled from National Socialism to England and the United States. The movement emphasizes the Science of Logic and research in Methodology and Foundation. Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath and Hans Reichenbach are among the most important representatives. Re-design: formal modification of a product due to changes in production or use. Following Raymond Loewy, however, the term is used to refer to specific aspects of marketing. |
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Referencias
[1] Tomás Maldonado, “Nuevos desarrollos en la industria y en la formación del diseñador de productos”, en: “ulm”, 2, octubre de 1958, p. 31.
[2] Horst Rittel, en: “output”, 1, marzo de 1961, p. 9.
[3] L. Bruce Archer, citado según “output”, 11, abril de 1962, p. 4.
[4]
[5]
[6] Las razones del alejamiento de Max Bill del colegio docente eran de diverso tipo y no deberían ser consideradas como una causa única.
[7]
[8] Ibídem, p. 29.
[9] Ibídem
[10] Ibídem
[11] El teórico inglés del diseño Reyner Banham dictó en marzo de 1959 dos conferencias en la HfG Ulm: él habló sobre los temas “consumo y diseño de productos” y “democratización del gusto”.
[12] Maldonado 1958 (véase nota 1), S. 30.
[13] Ibídem, p. 31.
[14] Ibídem
[15] Ponencia en una jornada de la Schweizer Werkbundes en 1949.
[16] Maldonado 1958 (ver nota 1), p. 34.
[17] Sigfried Giedion, “On the Education of Architects”, en: del mismo autor, Architecture, You And Me. The Diary of a Development, Cambridge 1958, p. 103.
[18] Maldonado 1958 (ver nota 1), p. 37.
[19] Martin Krampen y Günther Hörmann, “Rückblick und Ausblick. Aus einem Interview mit Tomás Maldonado”, en: de los mismos autores, Die Hochschule für Gestaltung Ulm. Anfänge eines Projektes der unnachgiebigen Moderne, Berlín 2003, p. 242.
[20] Tomás Maldonado, “Die Krise der Pädagogik und die Philosophie der Erziehung”, en: “Merkur”, XIII, 9, septiembre de 1959, pp. 818 – 835. Maldonado 1958 (ver nota 1), p. 39.
[21] Maldonado 1958 (ver nota 1), p. 39.
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25] Paul Betts, “New Bauhaus und School of Design, Chicago”, en: Jeannine Fiedler y Peter Feierabend (comps.), Bauhaus, Köln 1999, p. 72.
[26]
[27] Stefan Lengyel y Hermann Sturm (comps.): Design-Schnittpunkt Essen. 1949 –1989. Von der Folkwangschule für Gestaltung zur Universität Essen. 40 Jahre Industriedesign, Essen 1990, pp. 242– 259
[28] El ICSID (International Council of Societies of Industrial Design) exhibió en un pabellón especial 18 escuelas selectas de diseño, entre ellas la Folkwangschule y la HfG Ulm. El tema era “El ser humano y su medioambiente”. La Folkwangschule desarrolló como parte de su presentación “El niño pequeño y su medio ambiente”, entre otras cosas, sistemas modulares de elementos de juego. La HfG Ulm se presentó con el tema “Tráfico”, para este tema véase el segundo artículo mío en este volúmen.
[29] Los estudiantes de la HfG Ulm publicaron los siguientes artículos sobre este tema: Walter Müller, “In hoc de-signo vinces”, en: “output”, 4+5, junio de 1961, pp. 4 – 6; Klaus Krippendorff, “Produktgestalter contra Konstrukteur ”, en: “output”, 4+5, junio de 1961, pp. 18 – 21; Gerda Krauspe, “Produktgestalter contra Produktplaner ”, en: “output”, 4+5, junio de 1961, pp. 21–25. Jan Schleifer dedicó en 1963 la parte teórica de su trabajo de diploma a este tema. Der freiberufliche Designer. Untersuchungen über seine Arbeitsorganisation (HfG-Archiv Ulm, Trabajo de Diploma, Inv. N°. 65/5).
[30] Los miembros fundadores eran: Hans-Theo Baumann, Karl Dittert, Günter Kupez, Peter Raacke, Rainer Schütze, Hans Erich Slany, Arno Votteler y Herbert Hirche.
[31] Christian Marquart, Industriekultur – Industriedesign. Ein Stück deutscher Wirtschafts- und Designgeschichte. Die Gründer des Verbandes Deutscher Industrie Designer, Berlín 1994, pp. 34 – 46.
[32] Carta abierta acerca de la formulación de los estatutos de la VDID, 1960. Citado en: Marquart 1994 (ver nota 31), p. 46.
[33] Giulio Carlo Argan, “Krisis der Gegenstände. Auszüge aus einer Diskussion über Designerziehung, veröffentlicht von Gillo Dorfles”, en: “marcatré” (Rivista di Cultura Contemporanea, Lerci Editori), 26/29, diciembre de 1967. Reimpreso en: “ulm”, 19/20, agosto de 1967, pp. 35 – 36.
[34] Vittorio Gregotti, “Das italienische Design nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg”, en: Hans Wichmann, Italien. Design 1945 bis heute, München 1988, p. 33.
[35] A fines de los años 40, la New Bauhaus cambió la designación del Departamento de “Diseño Visual” por “Comunicación Visual”. Para este tema véase: Peter Hahn, “Visuelle Gestaltung”, en: 50 Jahre new bauhaus. Bauhausnachfolge in Chicago, Catálogo de Exhibición Bauhaus-Archiv Berlin, Berlín 1987, p. 137.
[36] Gui Bonsiepe, “Educación para el diseño visual”, en: “ulm”, 12/13, marzo de 1965, p. 24. El texto se refiere, entre otras, a una conferencia de Tomás Maldonado dictada en 1980 en Tokio.
[37] Una discusión sumaria de la identidad profesional del “diseñador gráfico” fue publicada en: Rainer Schmidt, Urheberrecht und Vertragspraxis des Grafik-Designers. Ein Handbuch für Rechts- und Honorarfragen im Bereich der visuellen Kommunikation, Hamburg 1983, pp. 23 – 46.
[38] Josef Müller-Brockmann, Geschichte der visuellen Kommunikation. Von den Anfängen der Menschheit, vom Tauschhandel im Altertum bis zur visualisierten Konzeption der Gegenwart, Teufen (CH) 1971, p. 282.
[39] Herbert W. Kapitzki, Gestaltung. Methode und Konsequenz. Ein biographischer Bericht, Stuttgart 1997, p. 37.
[40] Lucius Burckhardt, “Ulm anno 5. Zum Lehrprogramm der Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm”, in: “ werk. Schweizerische Monatsschrift für Architektur, Kunst, Künstlerisches Gewerbe”, 47, 11, 1960, pp. 384 – 386.
[41] Esta crítica fue resonante sobre todo en el contexto filosófico y teóricocientífico. A los escritos de Karl Popper respondió por ejemplo Paul Feyerabend en 1975 con su muy discutido libro Against Method.
[42] Para este tema, véase el artículo de Bernhard E. Bürdek en este volumen. Tomás Maldonado y Gui Bonsiepe, “Ciencia y diseño”, en: “ulm”, 10/11, mayo de 1964, pp. 10 – 29.
[43] Tomás Maldonado y Gui Bonsiepe, “Ciencia y diseño”, en: “ulm”, 10/11, mayo de 1964, pp. 10 – 29.
[44]
[45] Marina Bistolfi, “La HfG di Ulm: speranze, sviluppo e crisi”, en: “Rassegna”, 19, 1984, p. 11.
[46] La cita es atribuida a Carlos Obers, director creativo de la agencia RG Wiesmeier Werbeagentur, en Munich, hasta 2000 vocero del Art Directors Club Deutschland
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